Syllabus for RET Examination-2009
 Sub : Botany

[Based on M. Sc. Syllabus (Semester System)]
Phycology:
Classification of algae based on ultra-structure, Thallus organization and range of variation, Origin and evolution of eukaryotic algae and chloroplast, Cyanophyta - Cell structure, cyanobacterial genetics, ecology and economic importance, Rhodophyta - general characters, ecology, phylogeny, and importance, Bacillariophyta - Cell structure and cell division, reproduction, ecology and economic importance, Phaeophyta - General characters, cellular chemistry, ecology, Chlorophyta - General characters, ultrastructure and affinity, Phytoplankton ecology - Factors influencing phytoplankton productivity, Algae as food, feed and uses in industry: algal bloom, algal bio-fertilizer.

Mycology:
Cytology and Genetics: Homothallism and Heterothallism, Genetic control of mating system, Parasexuality; Growth: Measurement and Kinetics, Nutritional and Physical requirements, Sporulation: environmental control, Effect of physical factors, Spore dormancy and spore dispersal; Fungi as saprophyte, predator, parasite and as symbiont; Uses of fungi: Food, Industrial and Medicinal, biopolluting, Lignocellulosic conversion; Cultivation of Mushroom, Mycorrhizae; Mycotoxin and Mycotoxicosis, Mycoses.

Plant Pathology:
Mechanism of pathogenesis, Contact (Electrotaxis and Chemotaxis),Post penetration and development; Factors affecting infection, Plant factors, Nutrition of plant pathogen, Inoculum potential, Latent infection, environmental and biotic factors; Enzymes and plant diseases; Physiology of diseased plant; Toxin and plant diseases; Biological methods of plant disease control, resistant varieties, hyper – parasites, trap crops and atagonistic plants, Antibiosis competition analysis; Chemical methods of plant disease control: types of chemical used, Methods of application of fungicides, Determination of fungi toxicity, Factors affecting fungicidal efficiency protectant and systemic fungicides uptake, translocation and mode of action of systematic fungicides; Impact of air pollutant on plants parasites and plant diseases, source of air pollutant specific combustion sources, products of photochemical reaction, Naturally occurring phytotoxic air pollutants, gases released by green plants.

Bryophytes:
Current concepts of classification, origin and evolutionary trends, Ecology and economic importance, Classification of mosses with Indian examples and distribution, cytogenetics of bryophytes, diversity of gametophytic and sporophytic structures of bryophyta, methods of spore dispersal.

Pteridophytes:
Classification (latest concepts); distribution of extant groups in time and space, Evolutionary tendencies, affinities and their significance of the members of Rhyniophytopsida, Zosterophyllopsida, Trimerophytopsida; Psilotales, Lepidodendrales, Selaginellales, Isoetales, Sphenophyllales, Equisetales, Evolution of morphological, anatomical, reproductive structures of Cladoxylales, Ophioglossales, Marittiales, Osmundales, Filicales (Gleicheniaceae, Cyatheaceae, Polypodiaceae), Salviniales, Types of spore, induction of spore germination, gametophyte types, stomata types and development, Diversity of ferns in an ecological perspective; endangered and endemic pteridophytes and their conservation, Cytogenetics of ferns, apospory, apogamy, apomixis and polyploidy.

Gymnosperms and Paleobotany:
Progymnosperms - origin, classification, characterization; importance in tracing evolution of gymnosperms, Gymnosperms: classification, economic importance and distribution in India, General account on the morphology, anatomy, reproduction and affinities of the major groups of plants (Extinct & Extant).Variation in the structure of sperm; pollen grains, pollen germination; Trends of specialization in male and female gametophyte, Palaeobotany: radiometric datings (C14, Argon and Uranium dating), techniques for studying fossil plants (ground thin section, peel technique and microfossil analysis), Fossil plants in the interpretation of past climatic changes (Quaternary and Pre-quaternary), Indian Gondwana system, Palaeo-palynology: basic principle and its application in stratiography; palaeoclimate and oil exploration.

Embryology:
Microsporogenesis – male gametophyte – pollen fertility and sterility, pollen storage viability and germination. Megasporogenesis – embryo sacs – development and types. Embryo endosperm and seed development – polyembryony, parthenocarpy. Molecular basis of embryogeny in Arabidopsis.

Plant Anatomy:
Differentiation - alternate pathway of development, polarity, pattern formation, geneticcontrol, environmental effect. Shoot and root apical organization including cytohistological zonation of shoot apical meristem. Cell wall - chemistry, ultrastructure, biosynthesis and phylogeny. Evolution of xylem and phloem; wood anatomy, nodal anatomy and floral vasculature in systematics. Vascular cambium, experimental anatomy on cambial activity, factors influencing cambium activity; structure and function of cork cambium. Application of anatomical studies in climatology, genetics, biomedical research and forensic science.

Pharmacognosy:
Drug chemistry and methods of studying bioenergetic pathways of medicinal plants. Drug evaluation techniques for quality control; Organoleptic evaluation of drugs; Microscopic evaluation of drugs, biological evaluation of drugs (bioassays) and its importance. Chemical structure, classification, definition of classes. Uses and general idea of drugs. Glycosides and glycoside yielding drugs – Discorea sp. Alkaloids and alkaloidal drugs – Cinchona sp, Steroids and steroidal drugs – Digitalis sp, Thevetia sp. Antibiotics – general account, classification, mechanism of action of penicillin, role of different antibiotics.

Taxonomy of angiosperms:
Principles of Taxonomy and modern system of classification including Cronquist and Takhtajan system. Role of cytology (Cytotaxonomy), embryology, anatomy, palynology and phytochemistry in taxonomy. Taxonomic hierarchy, numerical taxonomy – definition, principles, procedures and utilities. History of International code of Botanical nomenclature, aims and important provisions for names of taxa of different ranks and hybrids, rules for valid and effective publication, rejection and retention of names. Role of Botanic gardens and Herbaria in taxonomic studies. Endangered, rare and threatened plants in India and their conservation. Study of angiosperm groups: Characterization of broad groups of angiosperm following Cronquist classification. Variation and Speciation: Types of variation, isolation mechanism and speciation. Taxonomic literature, Taxonomy, Systematics – concept and historical development, Importance of Floras, Revisions, Monographs and Taxonomic literature, Preparation of Taxonomic keys and its importance. Classification of Angiosperms – a brief history and comparative study of a few systems of classifications and changed concepts in the light of modern researches. Historical development of the International Code of Botanical nomenclature (ICBN); Principles and salient provisions of the code; typification; role of priority; retention; rejection and conservation of epithets (names); name of hybrids. Biosystematics. Origin of Angiosperms; primitive angiosperms. Migration and dispersal.

Plant Ecology & Biodiversity:
Ecosystem: Biosphere and ecosphere, abiotic and biotic components, biomass – standing crops. Ecological niche – spatial, trophic and multidimentional niche. Autoecology, synecology, ecocline, ecotype and its types. Homeostasis of ecosystem, indicator plants.
Pollution: Environmental deterioration - water pollution (fresh water bodies), air pollution, green house effect, importance of ozone layers and its depletion, acid rain, noise pollution, radiation pollution, pollution of land by solid waste.
Soil and water conservation: Soil erosion, its effect and control, water conservation, marine ecosystem, mangrove ecosystem, problems and managements of ecosystems.
Biodiversity: Concept of biodiversity, impact of human activities on biodiversity, conservation strategies, IUCN categories of threat,
Phytogeography: Theories of plant distribution (Theory of Continental Drift, Age and Area Theory and Theory of Tolerance). Endemism and its types, Major biomes of the world, Vegetational types of India. Biodiversity: concept and levels; IUCN threat categories, distribution and global patterns, International Programmes in relation to conservation – IUCN, WWF, MAB; Importance. Strategies for conservation – in situ conservation: International efforts and Indian initiatives; protected areas in India – sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves, wetlands, mangroves and coral reefs for conservation of wild biodiversity; ex situ conservation; Principles and practices; botanical gardens, field gene banks, seed banks, in vitro repositories, cryobanks; general account of the activities of Botanical Survey of India (BSI), National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NGPGR), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Department of biotechnology (DBT) for conservation, non – formal conservation efforts.
Theories of species diversity, General Pattern of Species diversity, Biodiversity conservation, Assessment of species diversity.
Green revolution: Benefits and adverse consequences.

Techniques of Biosystematics & Ecology:
Recent sensing technology – History of remote sensing, principles, types of remote sensing, applications. Geographic information system (GIS), Modern techniques of herbarium preparation and other related ecological methods.

Cell & Molecular Biology:
General concept of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell. Mitotic cell division, C - value paradox, replicon function in eukaryotes, chromosomal DNA maturation, regulation of cell cycle, Cyclin concept of cell division cycle in Yeast.
Cytoskeleton, general concept on cytoskeleton, Microtubules, microtubular organization in cilia, flagella and centrioles.
Ribosome: Molecular organization of ribosomal RNA genes, ribosome biogenesis.
Organelle genome: molecular structure, diversity and organization of chloroplast DNA (cp DNA). Nucleo - chloroplastic interactions.
Mitochondria: structure and organization of genome, biogenesis.
Nucleus: Ultra-structural organization and function of nuclear components: nuclear envelope, transportation of biomolecules through nuclear envelope, nucleolus and nuclear matrix. Chromatin organization: Chromosome structure and organization of nucleosomes, nature of active chromatin. Karyotyep concept and analysis.
Structure and functions of microbodies, golgi apparatus, lysosomes and endoplasmic reticulum.
Plasma membrane: structure, models and functions; sites for ATPase, ion carriers, channels and pumps, receptors.
DNA replication: Mode of DNA replication (Messelson and Stahl Experiment, Taylor’s Experiment), Molecular basis of replication in prokaryotes – Enzymes involved in replication, different models of replication, Origin and initiation of replication in E. coli., X 174, and M 13, Klenow fragment, Uracil fragment, Okazaki fragment, Nick translation, DNA methylation in replication.
Transcription: Enzymes involved in transcription, promoter and enhancer, PRIBNOW box, TATA box, Shine-Dalgarno sequence; Initiation, elongation and termination in prokaryotes, polyadenylation, methylated Cap, Mehanism of m-RNA splicing, RNA editing.
Translation: Activation of amino acid, Initiation of polypeptide Chain, Elongation and termination of polypeptide, polysomes and coupled translation.

Plant Biotechnology:
Plant biotechnology: basic concepts, principles and scope. Concept of cellular differentiation and totipotency.
Callus culture, habituated callus, factors controlling callus growth and proliferation. Cell suspension culture, growth pattern, factors controlling ideal cell suspension culture, synchronization of cell culture, Cell growth and viability, Utility of cell culture.
In vitro exudation, biochemical basis, problem and measures.
In vitro technique of plant regeneration, mode of regeneration, factors affecting regeneration, Applications. Shoot tip / Meristem culture, techniques, virus indexing, concept of virus cross protection, utility. Embryo culture, technique, application of embryo culture.
Protoplast culture and somatic hybridization: Protoplast culture techniques, isolation, purification and culture of protoplasts, application, Somatic hybridization and its mechanism, factors, selection of fused protoplast or product, Application.
Micro propagation: Concept, in vitro techniques, factors affecting in vitro stages of micro propagation, vitrification, Application of micro propagation in plant improvement.
Production of isogenic lines: Anther and Pollen culture, General trends of haploid plant production, Basic techniques of haploid culture, Factors affecting androgenesis, diplodization of haploids, Utilization of haploids in Agriculture.
Somatic embryogenesis: Structure and definition of somatic embryos, Modes and stages of somatic embryo development, Factors affecting somatic embryo development, Significance of somatic embryo in plant cell culture.
Synthetic seed technology (Artificial seed): Concept of artificial seed, Basic requirements for artificial seed production, types of gelling agent, principle and condition of encapsulation, methods of encapsulation.
Somaclonal variation: Somalcones, Source of somaclonal variation, Factors affecting the nature and frequency of somaclonal variation. Molecular basis of somaclonal variation. Chromosomal instability.
Cytodifferentiation: Biochemical and molecular basis of differentiation in plant tissue culture.
Cell line and cell line selection techniques: Variant and mutant cell line, Selection strategies of variant cell line, Genetical and biochemical basis of variant cell line production, Applications.
Biotechnology of secondary metabolite production: Primary and secondary metabolites, Secondary metabolite production through in vitro techniques, Role of elicitors, Co-culture technique and biotransformation.
Transformation technology: Concept of transgenic plant production, Agrobacterium mediated DNA transformation, Classification of Agrobacteria, Tumor inducing principle and the Ti plasmid, Organization of Ti plasmid, Function of virulence genes, T-DNA processing, transfer and integration, Advantage and disadvantage of Agrobacterium gene transfer system.
Gene cloning vector: Concept of Plasmids and Plasmid vectors (pBR 322, pUC vectors and Yeast plasmid vectors), Agrobacterium tumifaciens as gene vectors: Disarmed Ti plasmid, Co-integrative and Binary vectors.
Transgenics in crop improvements: Transgenics for male sterility, terminator seed and insect resistance.
Hairy root culture: General properties of A. rhizogenes and Ri – plasmids, Factors affecting virualance of A. rhizogene strains, characteristic of hairy root transformants, Establishment of hairy root culture. Genetics of transformation. Application of hairy root culture.
Germplasm conservation: Cryopreservation techniques, Factors affecting the freezing process and viability of frozen tissue; Prospect of cryopreservation.
Intellectual Property rights (IPR): Forms of protection, Patent and types of patents, Criteria for utility patent. Revocation of patent, Revocation of the turmeric patent. Genetically Modified Organisms, Benefits and Controversies.
Green House: Concept of green house, Types of green houses based on shape of the structure, function or utilities, nature of covering materials, Use and utility.

Genetics & Cytogenetics:
Mendelian inheritance, alleles, pseudo-alleles and multiple alleles, cis-trans test. Independent assortment and crossing over; chromosome mapping; linkage groups, homologous recombination, molecular mechanism of recombination; role of RecA and RecBCD enzymes, Site specific recombination.
Population genetics, genetic drift and polymorphism. Genetic code, Specialized types of Chromosomes- Polytene, Lampbrush and B-chromosomes. Sex determination and Dosage compensation.
Regulation of gene expression: Lac, Tryptophan and Arabinose operon. Microbial genetics – transformation, conjugation, sexduction and transduction.
Mutation – spontaneous and induced mutations; physical and chemical mutagens; molecular basis of gene mutation; site mutagenesis; Suppressor mutants, initiation of cancer at cellular level; proto oncogenes and oncogenes.
Cytogenetics of aneuploids and structural heterozygotes: Effect of aneoploidy on phenotype in plants; transmission of monosomics and trisomics and their uses in chromosome mapping of diploid and polyploidy species; breeding behaviour and genetics of structural heterozygotes; complex translocation heterozygotes; translocation tester sets; Robertsonian translocations; B – A translocation.
Alien gene transfer through chromosome manipulations: Transfer of whole genome, examples from wheat, Arachis and Brassica; transfer of individual chromosomes and chromosome segments; methods for detecting alien chromatin; production, characterization and utility of alien addition and substitution lines.
Interphase nucleus, the chromatin and the chromosome, loops, domains and scaffold in eukaryotic chromosomes; Karyotype evolution, Special chromosomes, chromosome puffing, CEN fragment and telomeres.
Principles of cytotaxonomy – cytological and Genetic methods for finding out the basic chromosome number and affinities of a species.
Molecular basis of recombination – Homologous recombination and site of specific recombination. Holliday model. Initiation of recombination through double stranded breaks. Single strand assimilation of bacterial recombination and role of Rec A protein. Gene conversion.
Gene cloning and sequencing, construction of genomic cDNA libraries, choice of vectors, DNA sequencing – the ultimate fine structure of gene, DNA fingerprinting, Chromosome walking, Restriction endonucleases, Restriction mapping. RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism).
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): components in PCR, inverse PCR, reverse transcriptase mediated PCR (RT - PCR), cloning of PCR products, genetic engineering by PCR, applications.
Organisation of interrupted genes. Evolution of interrupted genes. Mechanism of RNA splicing (mRNA, tRNA and rRNA), RNA editing. Simple sequence of DNA, satellite DNA. Complexicity of DNA determined through Cot ½, Nonrepititive DNA, expression of non-repetititive genes
In situ hybridization - concept and techniques, flow cytometry and confocal microscopy in karyotype analysis.
Mobile genetic elements: IS elements, Composite transposon, Replicative and Nonreplicative transposition, Controlling elements in maize (AC/dc, Spm/dspm family), Hybrid dysgenesis in Drosophila. Retroposons – mechanism of inserting DNA copies of an RNA viral genome into the host chromosome, Yeast Ty elements.
Eukaryotic RNA polymerase – Initiation and regulation of transcription
Protein translocation: Co-translational and Post –translational transfer. Role of leader sequence, Signal sequence. Transfer of protein from the ER through Golgi stacks.
Lytic and Lysogenic cascade. Site directed mutagenesis: DNA damage and repair mechanism (SOS, post replication), inherited human diseases and defects in DNA repair.
Genotoxicity – bioindicators, genotoxic agents, types and nature of genotoxic affects, different tests for cytological evaluation of genotoxicity.
Antisence RNA technology and its application: somatic cell genetics.

Plant Breeding:
Mechanism of pollination control in crop plants: self incompatibility, male sterility and application in plant breeding. Selection: mass selection, pure line selection, clonal selection and recurrent selection. Heterosis: hybrid and synthetic varieties, inbreeding depression, theories of heterosis. Crop improvement by pedigree method, bulk method and back cross method. Mutation breeding in crop improvement.

Microbiology:
Fine structure of bacteria, chemotaxis, Bacterial growth curve. Microbial media: types, preparation, methods of sterilization. Isolation of microorganism from environment and infected tissue. Techniques of pure culture. Staining: stains and dyes (negative staining, simple staining, differential staining and mechanism of staining), Acid fast staining. Microbial ecology: ecological groups, soil microbiology, water microbiology, microbial analysis of water purity. Microbiology of sewage (waste water) treatment: methods and measure, biodegradation, microbial leaching. Microbial interaction: Mutualism, commensalisms, antagonism and parasitism. Nitrogen fixation: symbiotic and asymbiotic. Pollution indicator microorganism, MPN and membrane filtration. Industrial microbiology. Fermenter, batch fermentation vs continuous fermentation. Industrial production of enzymes (amylase and protease). Industrial production of amino acids (lactic acid and citric acid). Microbiology of milk and milk products.
Viruses – Characteristics and ultra structure of virions; isolation and purification of viruses; chemical nature, replication, transmission of viruses; economic importance.

Biological Techniques:
Microscopy – principle and functioning, Fluorescence microscopy. Centrifugation – principle, application and concept of S value. Spectroscopy: UV - VIS spectrophotometry. Microtome: killing, fixation and staining. Chromatography: Paper chromatography, TLC, HPLC, GLC. Principles of electrophoresis: native and SDS PAGE. Principle of PCR and its application. Principle and staining of chromosomes with Fuelgen reagent.

Plant Physiology:
Plant-Water relations: Water potential and its components, mechanism of water transport through xylem, comparison of xylem and phloem transport, phloem loading and unloading, passive and active transport, various theories on the mechanism of active transport, role of root microbes in facilitating nutrient uptake.
Mineral Nutrition: Macro, micro and trace elements, role of various elements in plant metabolism and deficiency symptoms, sand culture, hydroponics and aeroponics, balanced nutrient solution.
Structure of chloroplast: Ultrastructure of chloroplast; Development of chloroplast.
Photosynthesis and Photochemistry: Historical background, photosynthetic pigments and light harvesting complex, photo-oxidation of water – mechanism of electron transport, carbon assimilation-Calvin cycle, HSK-cycle, CAM pathway, mechanism of photorespiration and its significance.
Photochemistry and Photomechanism: Evolution of photosynthetic apparatus, photosynthetic unit, mechanisms of electron and proton transport in PS I & PS II, structure of ATP-ase complex.
Assimilation of carbon: Types of C4 cycle, biosynthesis of starch and sucrose, energetic of photosynthesis in different pathway.
Transport of photosynthates and plant productivity: Mechanism of transport of photosynthesis; Photosynthesis in Agriculture production, C3 – C4 Hybrids, measurement of productivity / Biomass.
Respiration: Overview of plant respiration, glycolysis, TCA cycle, electron transport chain (ETC) and mechanism of ATP synthesis, glyoxylate cycle, pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), alternative oxidase systems. Amphibolic nature of TCA cycle, cyanide – resistant respiration; biochemical control/ Regulation of Respiration.
Photorespiration: RuBisCo Kinetics, Energetic of photorespiration.
Plant hormones and Growth regulators: Historical background, structure and biosynthesis of IAA, GA and Cytokinin (CK), bioassay, physiological effects and mechanism of action of IAA, GA, CK, Ethylene and Abscisic acid.
Synthetic plant growth regulators and elicitors: Role of brassionsteroids, polyamines, jasmonic acid and salicylic acid, phytohormones in tissue culture and agriculture.
Nitrogen fixation and metabolism: Overview of nitrogen fixation at global level, structure of nitrogenase and mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation, recognition process and nodule formation, mechanism of nitrate and ammonium assimilation.
Nitrogen mineralization – ammonification, nitrification and denitrification.
Regulation of Nitrogen fixation, Nif - gene, Nod factors, Hup-gene, Sym-gene, Rhizobium and its inoculation groups, function of nitrogenase, hydrogenase, ATP-ase and leghaemoglobin in BNF, production of inoculum and biomanure, asymbiotic nitrogen fixing organisms.
Sulphur metabolism: Sulphate uptake, transport and assimilation.
Sensory photobiology: History of discovery of phytochromes and cryptochromes, and their photochemical properties, photophysiology of light-induced responses, cellular localization, Isolation of phytochrome, molecular mechanism / mode of action of photomorphogenic receptors, signaling and gene expression.
Physiology of flowering: Photoperiodism, photoperiodic classes, photoperiodic induction, role of phytochrome in flower initiation, vernalization and its role, endogenous clock.
Photomorphogenesis: Discovery of Photomorphogenesis, and skotomorphogenesis; Photomorphogenetic response in plants; Morphological, Physiological and Cellular features of morphogenesis and Regulatory aspects of photomorphogeneis in higher plants.
Senescence and abscission: Senescence and ageing, physiological and biochemical changes during senescence.
Physiology of seed germination: Dormancy of seed, causes of dormancy and ways of breaking it, biochemical changes during seed germination, factors affecting germination, role of light on germination and involvement of phytochrome.
Seed germination and seedling growth: Hormonal control of seedling growth; gene expression.
Seed Maturation: Biochemical changes during maturation of Endospermous and Albuminous seeds; Seed longevity; Testing for seed viability; Factors affecting longevity.
Bud dormancy: Dormancy of buds and under ground storage organs.
Physiology of Growth: Growth Curves of Unicellular and multicellular plants; pattern of growth and development; Steps in cell growth and development; Primary wall changes during growth; The cell cycle; Growth kinetics; Growth of plant organs (roots; stems; leaves only in brief).
Signal Transduction: Overview, receptors and G – proteins, phospholipids signaling, role of cyclic nucleotides, calcium – calmodulin cascade, diversity in protein kinases and phosphatases, specific signaling mechanisms, e.g., two-component sensor-regulator system in bacteria and plants, signal transduction and gene expression, sucrose-sensing mechanism.
Stress physiology: Plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses, mechanism of biotic and abiotic tolerance, HR and SAR, water deficit and drought resistance, salinity stress, metal toxicity, freezing and heat stress, chilling injury, oxidative stress, production of active oxygen and superoxide radicals and their role; radiation stress.
Secondary Plant Metabolites: Biosynthesis of Chlorophyll; Carotenoids; Phenols; Alkaloids; Steroids and Flavonoid pigments (e.g. Anthocyanin).

Biochemistry:
Carbohydrates -Classification- monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides, reducing and non-reducing properties of sugars, structure of some mono and disaccharides, dextro and levorotatory properties of monosaccharides, biochemical tests, biosynthesis of sucrose and starch in plants.
Lipids: Classification, properties, saturated unsaturated fatty acids, plant waxes, steroids, cholesterol and lecithin.
Amino acids: Classification, structure and biosynthetic pathways.
Protein structure: Primary structure - Purification and determination of amino-acid sequence, identification of N–terminal and C–terminal of peptide. Secondary structure: Configuration and conformation – β-conformation and the pleated sheet. Tertiary structure and quaternary structure of Proteins, Ramchandran Plot.
Protein metabolism: Transamination and oxidative deamination, pathway/mechanism of Coenzyme-A (Co-A) formation.
Enzyme: Reaction rates catalyzed by enzymes, enzyme kinetics study, Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) and its derivation, reversible and irreversible inhibition, inhibition constant (ki) and Dixon plot, allosteric inhibition and its mechanism, Coenzymes and their role in plant metabolism, ribozyme and abzyme.
Biochemistry of nucleic acids: Structure of nitrogenous bases, nucleotides and polynucleotides, structure of DNA- the double helix, A, B and Z forms.

Biophysics:
Acid, Bases and Buffers: Osmosis – Protolysis of water, concept of pH, pKa, buffer, Henderson – Hasselbalch equation & determination of pH, Osmosis and Osmotic Pressue, Van’t Hoff equation, determination of OP and biological significance. Diffusion – general principles, Fick’s law and Graham’s Law, biological significance.
Bioenergetics: Principles of thermodynamics, concept of entropy and enthalpy, free energy and chemical potential, redox reactions, standard free energy change (ΔG0'), calculation of ΔG0' for any biochemical reaction including ATP hydrolysis. Oxidative phosphorylation – Chemiosmotic hypothesis
Surface phenomena and Colloidal state: Surface tension and surfactants, Gibbs-Thomson Principle, biological significance. Viscosity – principles, Strokes’ law and Poisseuill’s law, biological significance. Collloids – Characteristics of colloidal particle, optical and electrical properties.

Biostatistics:
Graphical representation of Data; Different types- Bar diagram, Pie chart, histogram, frequency polygon, Ogives.
Central tendency- Mean, mode and median; Relation among AM, GM and HM.
Measures of dispersion- Mean Deviation, Quartile deviation, Standard deviation and standard error, Standard error mean.
Probability – Classical definition of probability, limitations of classical probability, Theorems -total probability and compound probability. Binomial law and probability distribution.
Correlation- coefficients of correlation, Spearson’s Rank correlation.
Regression- regression lines and regression coefficient.
Chi square test; Test for goodness of fit- Pearson X2 , Contingency Chi square, F-test and Z – test.
t- test: Unpaired ‘t’ test, Paired ‘t’ test.
Analysis of Variance – one way ANOVA and two way ANOVA.

Computer Application:
History of development of computers, Mainframe, mini, micro and Super Computer Systems.
General awareness of computer Hardware i.e. CPU and other peripheral devices (input/output and auxillary storage devices). Basis knowledge of computer systems software and programming language i.e. Machine language, Assembly language and higher level language. General awareness of popular commercial software packages like LOTUS, DBASE, WordStar, other scientific application packages. Microsoft Office XP – General introduction: working with Ms Word, Power Point Presentation, Ms Excel.